Astronomy
Medieval astronomy was largely based on the geocentric model of Ptolemy, though refined by Islamic astronomers and later Christian scholars. Instruments like the astrolabe were used to study celestial movements, which were critical not only for scientific curiosity but also for religious practices, such as determining prayer times and the liturgical calendar.
Medicine
Medieval medicine combined classical theories with religious and astrological elements. The four humors—blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile—dominated medical theory, derived from Hippocrates and Galen. Hospitals, often run by monastic orders, provided care based more on spiritual healing and the balancing of humors than on surgical intervention. Nonetheless, medical texts from Islamic sources enriched European medical knowledge. The Canon of Medicine by Avicenna became a standard text in European medical schools well into the Renaissance.
Alchemy
Alchemy was a complex mixture of philosophy, spirituality, and proto-chemistry. While modern science rejects many alchemical goals—such as the transmutation of base metals into gold or the search for the philosopher’s stone—alchemy laid important groundwork for the later development of chemistry. Alchemists like Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan) influenced both Islamic and European traditions. shutdown123